ÿþ<html> <head> <title>Metaphysics of Temptation in Eastern Orthodox Monasticism - Ilias Bantekas - Theandros - An Online journal of Orthodox Christian Theology and Philosophy </title> <meta name="keywords" content="temptation, demonology, evil, demons, monks"> <script language="javascript" src="js/blue.js" type="text/javascript"></script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="css/styles.css" type="text/css"> </HEAD> <body topMargin=0 leftMargin=0 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 bgcolor=#EAECFF text=000099 link=#0000EE vlink=#551A8B alink=#FF0000> <table width=1280 border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0><tr><td valign=top width=760> <table width=760 border=0 style="font-family:Arial;font-size:28px;font-weight:bold;color:#0D6007;"> <tr> <td valign=top><img src="images/geo.jpg" width="118" height="120" alt=""></td> <td valign=top align=center > <a href="http://www.theandros.com"><img src="images/logo_gr.gif" width="350" height="70" alt="Theandros - Online Journal of Orthodox Christian Theology and Philosophy" border=0></a> <br /><img src="images/filet2.gif"> <br /> Volume 4, number 2, Winter 2006/2007<br /></td> <td valign=top align=right> <img src="images/clement.gif" width="85" height="120" alt=""> </td> </tr> </table> </center> <br /> <table width=630 cellspacing=0> <tr> <td valign=top> <table border=0 width=130> <tr> <td style="font-family:Arial;font-size:14px;"> &nbsp;<br> <a href="cissue.html">Current Issue</a><br> <!--//<a href="#" onMouseOver="Show(1)" onMouseOut="Hide(1)">Topics</a><img src="images/arrowb.gif">//--><a href="articles.html">All Articles</a><br> <a href="pater.html" onMouseOver="Show(2)" onMouseOut="Hide(2)">Church Fathers</a><img src="images/arrowb.gif"><br> <a href="editors.html">Editors</a><br> <a href="submissions.html">Submissions</a><br> <a href="links.html">Links</a><br> <a href="index.html">Home Page</a> <a href="glossary.html" target="_blank">Glossary</a><br> <br><br> ISSN 1555-936X </td> </tr> </table> </td> <td valign=top> <table border=0 cellpadding=4 bgcolor="#DDE0FF" width=520 style="font-size:14px;color:#000000"> <tr> <td> <br /> <center><b><font size=+1>The Metaphysics of Temptation in Eastern Orthodox Monasticism</font></b></center> <br /><br /> <center><b>Ilias Bantekas<br /> </b></center> <br /> <br /> <br /> <b>I. INTRODUCTION</b> <br /> <br />The object of this treatise is to set out the teachings and monastic tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church regarding the nature of temptations and the remedies available to combat them. In order to do so we examine the origin of temptations as mental representations, the role of demons as the senders of temptations, the mechanisms whereby their addressees, namely human souls, receive the mental representations and thereafter inflame the irascible and concupiscible faculties of the soul and produce an impulse. Moreover, we observe the nature of the warfare between the demons and human beings and the role of God in allowing us to be afflicted by demons and their temptations. We also examine in what way God himself tempts us and what is the purpose of such intervention. Finally, we examine the remedies proposed by the most experienced monks, as these have come down through oral and written tradition, classifying such remedies into those appropriate for all monks irrespective of experience (universal) and those reserved only for the most experienced brethren. It should be noted from the outset that the premise of the sources used in this thesis have as their primary audience monastic communities and not secular people. Thus, although it is possible for people from all walks of life to understand and follow the prescripts outlined here  at least to some degree, as far as people living in the world are concerned - the context and the audience are specific in the minds of their authors. <br /> <br /> <b>II. <i>LOGISMOI</i> OR MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS</b> <br /> <br />The Orthodox tradition believes that passions and bad thoughts or suggestions are stored in our heart, and it is from there that they afflict our body and intellect. Mat. 15:19 claims that  for out of the heart come evil intentions, murder, adultery, fornication, theft, false witness, slander . How is this to be explained in practical and experiential terms? Temptations and <i>logismoi</i> are synonymous terms, at least in their effect. The latter signify a suggestion or mental representation whose origin lies outside the heart, and which according to the disposition and content of the suggestion this may be a good or bad one. In this essay we are concerned with bad <i>l</i><i >ogismoi</i>, which are always bad suggestions, in the sense that they bring turbulence to where should otherwise reign internal peace and they urge the mind towards vice. <br /> <br />Monastic tradition explains that temptations as <i>logismoi</i> correlate to the three faculties of the soul, that is the rational, the concupiscible (appetitive) and the irascible (<i>thumikon</i>) and thus three types of <i>logismoi</i> are borne: From the rational originate the <i>logismoi</i> of faithlessness towards God, non-discernment and all those typically described as blasphemous.<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title="">[1]</a> From the concupiscible faculty are borne the <i>logismoi</i> of hedonism, ambition, love for money and all those generally called filthy <i >logismoi</i>.<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title="">[2]</a> From the irascible faculty are derived the <i>logismoi</i> of murder, revenge, hate, upheaval and all those known as wicked.<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title="">[3]</a> As we shall observe in proceeding sections, St. Nicodemus puts forward the notion that one should fight such <i>logismoi</i> by nurturing their opposite virtues. Evagrius Ponticus is best known for his thorough examination and categorisation of thoughts and temptation in his works <i >On Thoughts</i> and the <i >Praktikos</i> (abbreviated Greek version of <i >The Monk: A Treatise on the Practical Life</i>). The three principal evil thoughts are gluttony, vainglory and avarice. These give rise to the other five, namely, lust, despondency, pride, dejection and anger.<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title="">[4]</a> He teaches that each of these vices has its associated demon and that they are all linked to the principal three as follows: gluttony is the gateway to lustful thoughts and leads the unwary ascetic to fornication through the disturbance of the soul s concupiscible faculty. Avarice culminates in a fight over food, possessions, or human esteem and disturbs the irascible part of the soul. Finally, privation of any of these leads to despondency and failure to destroy avarice leads to pride.<a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title="">[5]</a> <br /> <br />In attempting to find an answer as to the origin of these mental representations, the apologists, chiefly Origen, and the early Church Fathers, turned to the sixth petition in the Lord s prayer, i.e.  lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil . Origen, a master of allegory, did not sanction a literal interpretation, since in his view temptations are a necessary part of our human condition. The consequence of this exegesis is that the petition concerns our efforts against succumbing to temptations and not that they should cease altogether.<a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" title="">[6]</a> For Gregory of Nyssa, temptations are inevitable in worldly life since the world lies in the Evil one. The Evil is known by many names, in accordance with its numerous evil manifestations. In this sense, he describes <i >logismoi</i> as attacks by Evil in the form of worldly allurements.<a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" title="">[7]</a> Gregory s perception of temptation is therefore no different from Origen, but whereas the latter views temptation as a transitory stage in our earthly struggle, Gregory suggests without hesitation that the cure lies in asceticism.<a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" title="">[8]</a> Neither of these definitions, however, explain why temptations persist in the ascetic struggle  and to a far higher degree than in worldly life  as well as why God allows Evil to provoke our soul and with almost certainty lead us to succumb to sin. Finally, to Macarius of Egypt, the spiritual inheritance of the Fall is indwelling sin,  the evil inheritance of the passions .<a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" title="">[9]</a> <br /> <br />To Orthodox ascetics the Evil one is both a corporeal and non-corporeal entity. It is chiefly against him that their entire worldly (that is, both corporeal and mental) struggle is concentrated. His only goal is to obstruct our vision of God s ineffable light and glory by keeping us in our current darkness through an endless chain of worldly allurements. This concept, however, contains a number of theological contradictions. For one thing, God is the primary cause of all existence and therefore of Evil. Secondly, God alone is Goodness, Love and Justness, hence it is not possible that He may wish our imprisonment to Satan. The only rational conclusion is thus that God permits Evil to inflict tempting <i>logismoi</i> to humanity so that we may arrive to a humble knowledge of ourselves and of our weakness and receive His grace.<a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" title="">[10]</a> Equally, because of our natural will, which is shaped on the basis of God s indivisible qualities, it is not futile for us to expect to defeat temptations if we put aside our gnomic will<a href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" title="">[11]</a> and live a life in Christ. Satan, or the Evil One, comes to us either as a corporeal entity and inflicts actual bodily pain and sufferings (this is rare, however),<a href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" title="">[12]</a> but he primarily imparts suggestions or <i>logismoi</i> which find their way to our mind and heart and in turn stir up various passions. The former  that is, the corporeal presence of Satan - is beyond the scope of temptations as such, so we shall confine our analysis only to the latter. Temptations, therefore, are personified and evoked by the demons. Evagrius differentiates between two classes of demons and their corresponding vices. The first tempt the human person as a human being, while the second as an irrational animal. The first instil in us mental representations of vainglory and pride  to which irrational beings are insusceptible  while the second class move our irascibility and concupiscibility contrary to nature.<a href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" title="">[13]</a> <br /> <br />St. Athanasius describes the <i>logismoi</i> inflicting St. Anthony in the desert, and emanating from Satan, as being of two kinds: those that exist only in the form of filthy thoughts and those that are generated through the impersonation by Satan of enticing objects or living entities, such as women, glory and gold.<a href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" title="">[14]</a> The latter kind does not constitute a suggestion <i>per se</i>, but much like a suggestion it arouses and kindles the passions of the heart through the medium of sight. Satan s temptation is therefore both a <i >logismos</i>, or suggestion that is not transmitted via the five senses, as well as a conception that is mediated through one of the five senses. This necessarily means that neither the <i >logismos</i>, nor the sense perception, are in themselves powerful enough to provoke deviation from Christ. Rather, they are part of the chain of causes that lead to sin in the following sequence: <i >logismos</i> --> flaring of passion --> action upon the passion. This explanation is helpful in understanding in later sections why Orthodox ascetics claim that our struggle is viable only at the stage of fighting <i>logismoi</i>, whereas the next stage wherein the <i>logismoi</i> have kindled the passions is extremely difficult to be overcome, much like a dam whose protective wall has given way to the surging water. <br /> <br />Since Satan tempts us to the end, thus our life is a constant fight with him.<a href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" title="">[15]</a> In fact, Satan, who is the source of evil, made that most evil suggestion to our first parents.<a href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" title="">[16]</a> <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">St. Paul</st1:place></st1:City> succinctly describes the purpose of our earthly struggle as being  not against enemies of blood and flesh, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers of this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places .<a href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" title="">[17]</a> Orthodox tradition believes that Satan s grandest success is convincing us of his non-existence. According to St. Nicodemus, Satan  who is in fact more than one entity  dwells around the heart by virtue of his energy and not by essence. Before baptism, grace moves man to good deeds from outside, while Satan dwells inside the heart. Following baptism, however, God allows Satan to wonder in the periphery of the heart in order to test our will. It is there that the Evil one tries to  smoke out the mind with lust for the flesh . That is why, argues St. Nicodemus, the fathers vehemently stress that Satan does not want people knowing where he dwells, so that they will not fight him.<a href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" title="">[18]</a> Satan struggles against us in six ways: up, down, right left, front and back. Up, corresponds to our struggles towards virtue; below, our omissions through negligence which we suffer in order to attain this virtue; the right represents the demons fooling us with a good cause in order to turn us towards evil; left denotes that although evil is staring us in the eye, they urge us to sin; front is when the demons fight us with <i>logismoi</i> and images of things which are to follow; behind, finally, their fight against us with memories and prejudices of things past.<a href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" title="">[19]</a> <br /> <br />We have seen in what way God allows Satan to attack us with <i>logismoi</i> or perceptible objects, but it is equally true that God himself inflicts temptations upon us for much the same reason. God s temptations, however, are an emanation of what God is, Love, and this is the way in which they come to us. Satan s afflictions are not caused by love but are ultimately sanctified by God for our benefit. Thus, St. John of Damascus, interprets Mark 5:13  Christ giving permission to the demons to enter the swines  as God permitting: <blockquote> <br /> <br />& even the just man to meet with misfortunes so that the virtue hidden in him may be made known to others, as in the case of Job. At other times, He permits something iniquitous to be done so that through this apparently iniquitous action some great and excellent thing may be brought about, as was the salvation of men by the Cross. In still another way, He permits the devout man to suffer evil either so that he may not fall into the presumption from the strength and grace that have been given him, as in the case of Paul. Someone may be abandoned for a while for the correction of others so that by observing his state they may be instructed. & God provides for all creation, and through all creation He does good and instructs, oftentimes using even the demons themselves for this purpose, as in the case of Job and in that of the swine.<a href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" title="">[20]</a> </blockquote> <br /> <br />It is evident, therefore, that God himself tempts us with <i>logismoi</i> and perceptible images for our benefit.<a href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" title="">[21]</a> Temptations, whether as <i >logismoi</i>, or perceptible images or situations, are numerous in kind, ranging from lustful thoughts to calamities such as death of familial persons and sicknesses. As we shall see in the section on remedies, self-control over the three principal vices/temptations, coupled with ascetic/bodily and spiritual exercises helps to avoid any adverse turbulence in the spirit and does not kindle the passions contrary to nature. It is not clear from the relevant literature whether the early church fathers and later ascetics considered that Satan has the power to inflict the whole range of perceptible images  including death and sickness - or rather, whether God s <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Providence</st1:place></st1:City> allows him to do so. The question is all the more relevant in light of the fathers admission that Satan at times assumes a corporeal existence in order to physically harm those ascetics that have erected an impregnable wall to his <i >logismoi</i>. The answer must necessarily be an affirmative one, since even individuals can harm each other. We must, however, qualify Satan s power over man and predicate it always on God s loving providence. <br /> <br />Finally, in some writings a third origin of temptation is cited; other people and our sinful nature.<a href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" title="">[22]</a> It is doubtful, however, that we are able to produce temptations for ourselves, as this would negate the rationale for the temptation itself. Instead, when one says that through our sins we tempt ourselves, the correct interpretation must be that we employ gnomic will vis-à-vis our temptations. As regards temptations emanating from and directed towards other human beings, these constitute a third type to the extent that they are not provoked by God or Satan. It is irrational to consider that even these do not have a place within God s <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Providence</st1:place></st1:City>, although they are subject to the free will of the tempter. <br /> <br /> <b>III STIRRING OF PASSIONS AS A RESULT OF TEMPTATIONS</b> <br /> <br />Christ s temptation in the garden of Gesthemane constitutes the archetypal temptation of human existence. The temptation in that case was impending death by crucifixion and the fear produced as a result. However, Christ does not allow his gnomic will to overpower his natural will and thus prevents through free will the penetration of temptation into the heart where it inflames the passions which eventually lead to sin. <br /> <br />St. John Damascus eloquently explains the domino effect that results in the arousal of passion. <blockquote> <br /> <br />Passion is a movement of the appetitive faculty which is felt as a result of a sensory impression of good or evil. It may also be defined in another way: passion is an irrational movement of the soul to an impression of good or evil. Thus, the impression of good arouses the desire, whereas that of evil arouses the anger. Passion in the general or common sense is defined thus: passion is a movement in one thing caused by another.<a href="#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" title="">[23]</a> </blockquote> <br /> <br />Passion is indeed a reaction to an external event. However, even where the external event (<i>logismos</i>) is not prevented from entering the soul s faculties, we, unlike brute irrational animals, are equipped with an internal mechanism  through our cognitive and vital faculties - by which to dissipate it before giving rise to uncontrolled impulses. In brute animals, when an appetite for something arises it is immediately followed by an appetite to act because their appetite is irrational and they lack a natural will. Our soul, on the other hand, possesses natural will and as a result any external suggestion giving rise to an appetite goes through a successive process of <i>deliberation</i>, followed by <i>judgment</i>, then by <i >opinion</i>, finally culminating in <i >choice</i> or selection. It is then that one moves to act, and this is called <i>impulse</i>.<a href="#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" title="">[24]</a> It is evident that the natural will of the soul sets in motion its cognitive faculties in order to prevent the <i>logismos</i> from succumbing to <i>gnome</i>. It follows that they who do not employ, or who have blunted, their cognitive faculties will inevitably give in to <i>gnomic</i> impulses. The danger in this case is, as St. Gregory of Nyssa points out, that succumbing to one passion gives rise to all passions, since human weaknesses are linked together and related to each other and if one of them destroys the protective barrier of our rational faculty, the whole train of passions enters the soul.<a href="#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" title="">[25]</a> <br /> <br />While the terminology employed by the early and later fathers, as well as by more contemporary ascetics, is not consistent, they are generally agreed that the phase of passion encompasses the moment where the <i >logismos</i> enters the soul until such time as it is refined into an impulse against or in favour of evil. Evagrius is rather more specific on the matter. He distinguishes in man a concupiscible (desire) and an irascible (incensive) power, both given to him by God and constituting an integral part of his nature. The irascible faculty is intended to drive away wolf-like intellections, while the desire serves to lovingly tend the sheep and produce feelings of compassion and love.<a href="#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" title="">[26]</a> While it is evident that these two faculties are designed to serve a spiritual purpose, Evagrius calls them passions to the extent that they are unchecked and uncontrolled, the misuse of which can lead to exactly the opposite effect for which they were given to us (e.g. the incensive turns to wrath and the desiring turns to lust). The passion is a potentially flammable material, but it is ignited only by <i>logismoi</i> and other external images and free will against its true nature. Therefore, it is not the <i >logismos</i> or temptation that is itself the vainglory injected in the soul, but the unchecked <i>logismos</i> inflames the vice of vainglory in the irascible part of the soul. In this sense, we can defend ourselves from <i>logismoi</i> and temptations, but we cannot obliterate the underlying passions that lie scattered around the heart because they are part of our nature.<a href="#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" title="">[27]</a> Obviously, for the untrained soul, the passing of the temptation into the rational faculties will almost certainly lead to a sinful impulse, but it is not impossible for a strong <i>gnomic</i> will to be defeated at that stage. However, it is for this reason that the trained ascetics warn us against entertaining bad <i>logismoi</i>, even where we perceive ourselves to be spiritually strong.<a href="#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" title="">[28]</a> We become unsusceptible to passion when our vision is guided solely by our natural will. In this way,  our souls are moved by intelligent energies in the direction of the things of the intellect [and it is then that] our senses and all that go with them are no longer needed .<a href="#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" title="">[29]</a> <br /> <br /> <br /><b>IV. </b><b >THE</b><b> N</b><b >ATURE OF THE </b><b > E</b><b>NEMY S</b><b > S</b><b>TRUGGLE</b><b > A</b><b>GAINST</b><b > U</b><b>S</b> <br /> <br />We have already noted that Satan s greatest victory is his hiding and thus our false certainty of his non-existence. It is well understood that Evil, or Satan and all his manifestations are not self-subsistent. Pseudo-Dennys, for example, delves into an examination of evil in order to demonstrate the superabundance of Good and the Goodness of Being in God. He explains that since God is Good and the cause of being, every created being is necessarily good as stemming from his nature. Evil has therefore originated from Good and is potentially good, being a weakness and deficiency of the good.<a href="#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" title="">[30]</a> Assuming that we have knowledge of, or faith in the Evil s existence, of what help is this to us if we cannot discern where he is and what he is doing to divert our attention to evil rather than Good. Evil fights us with bad <i>logismoi</i> alone, as it is unable to penetrate our hearts or take command itself of our soul. Since evil is itself a creature of God in the same way as we are, and since the substance and energy of souls is the creation of God alone, no creature can create a new soul or destroy an existing one. All that is permitted by our Creator is the blurring of the vision of the soul s natural will. Satan, therefore, does not have any power upon us, unless we accept his suggestions and allow them to obfuscate our natural will. <br /> <br />In this internal struggle, therefore, St. Nicodemus admonishes the young monks to be fearful of themselves, as well as of their countless enemies, to which, he adds, they are powerless of offering even the slightest resistance. He further admonishes fear of the enemy s habit of constant fighting, his stratagems and transformations into angels of light,<a href="#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" title="">[31]</a> as well as his numerous traps.<a href="#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" title="">[32]</a> A monk s vigilance  as well as any person who wants to avert Satan from molesting one s soul  is never-ending; it is constant until the very last breath of one s life. The monk is aware, more than anyone else, that our only chance against the onslaughts of Satan, whose only weapon is constituted by <i>logismoi</i> or external representations (that excite our sensory faculties and give rise to <i >logismoi</i>), is to block <i >logismoi</i> from penetrating our mind. We will examine in other sections how this may be achieved through constant prayer, chanting, fasting and other means. It is exactly this aspect of our struggle that is emphasised in Scripture in unequivocal terms:  Give heed to thyself, lest perhaps a wicked thought steal in upon thee .<a href="#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" title="">[33]</a> St. Basil explains that men are very easily prone to sins of thought because the movement of the mind does not require any physical exertion and may even be accomplished in a state of weariness. The mind must, therefore, exercise precaution constantly in prohibiting any unchecked thoughts, imaginings or sensual images to infiltrate the soul.<a href="#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" title="">[34]</a> He explains the precise meaning of the command  give heed to thyself in terms of our spiritual struggle as meaning: <blockquote> <br /> <br />Keep the eye of your soul sleeplessly on guard, for  Thou art going in the midst of snares .<a href="#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" title="">[35]</a> Traps set by the enemy lie concealed everywhere. Look about you in all directions, therefore,  that you may be saved as a swallow from the traps and as a bird from the snare .<a href="#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" title="">[36]</a> The deer cannot be caught with traps because of the keenness of his vision; whence its name, deriving from its own sharpsightedness. A bird, if alert, easily flies out of the range of the huntsman s snare. See to it, then, that you are not more remiss than the animals in protecting yourself. Never let yourself be caught in the snares of the Devil and so become his prey, the captured plaything of his will.<a href="#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" title="">[37]</a> </blockquote> <br /> <br />Evil does not present the same temptations or external images to all people. It does so according to each person s inclinations toward sin and the intensity varies in accordance with each individual s personal struggle. For those who are strong in the spiritual life, the Devil seeks to win their mind with theological and philosophical intrigues. Thus, he provides those with an acute mind and those that are prone to a high opinion of their intellect, pseudo-lofty ideas and philosophical enquiries.<a href="#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" title="">[38]</a> This pride that comes with boasting in human wisdom that was severely criticised by Paul in 1 Cor. 1:18-31 is an example of allowing the <i>logismos</i> of pride in the minds of those claiming to possess worldly wisdom. To those who are prone to entertaining lustful thoughts the Devil showers them with external images and <i>logismoi</i> that flare their passions. People that have not exercised heed in themselves, or who postpone advent towards a spiritual life, cannot perceive that such <i>logismoi</i> are unnatural and that they have a particular origin, target and purpose. Each of these persons allows the <i>logismos</i> to penetrate the mind and from there to flare the passion until it becomes an inescapable impulse, being wholly unaware of the overall scheme. <br /> <br />However, even they who are aware of this overall scheme, particularly monks and pious individuals, find the devil s snares no less difficult to combat against. The harder they resist, the more Evil intensifies its efforts through luring temptations. St. Nicodemus warns that when Evil knows that we are resisting hard against temptations and we actually seem to be victorious, Evil takes all temptations away from us so that we may fall into pride and vainglory. Thus, when we have committed ourselves to a struggle against Satan, and the latter removes all temptations from our existence, we should make a mental effort to bring to our mind those temptations that afflict us the most and proceed to fight them as though they were real and hate them from within our hearts.<a href="#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" title="">[39]</a> This idea that we should fight the devil in the attacking sense, rather than wait for him to tempt us in order that we may then resist, is central to St. Nicodemus s ascetic theology for those individuals that have advanced in their spiritual ascent. This is in accord with the theological literature we have examined thus far, which suggests that our struggle against Satan in our worldly life does not end. The consequence of this observation is that absent God s grace, we have no absolute mastery over our soul and body in this life. St. Nicodemus grounds his rationale regarding an attacking stance towards Satan not only in monastic tradition and experiential asceticism, but also in Scripture, particularly Psalm 18:37-38, which reads:  I pursued my enemies and overtook them and did not turn my back until they were consumed. I struck them down so that they were not able to rise; they fell under my feet . He explains that when we are improving in the virtues, Satan transforms himself into goodness so that we may follow him to a certain height, only to drop us suddenly and thus cause us worldly grief and alienation from God.<a href="#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" title="">[40]</a> <br /> <br />It is not clear from the theological literature why it is that Satan wants to tempt us and lure us away from God. St. John Climacus teaches that demons afflict us either because we are sensual, proud, or out of sheer envy. The last of these is a ground for rejoicing, the middle for pity, whereas the first leads to a prospect of lifelong failure.<a href="#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" title="">[41]</a> St. Nicodemus briefly states that peace is a state of tranquillity achieved through grace and struggle, which Satan wants to disturb and destroy.<a href="#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" title="">[42]</a> This still fails to explain why. We have already explained that Satan is a creature of God and therefore good by nature, but obfuscated by <i>gnome</i>, and thus lacking natural will. Despite being a creature like us, he possesses powers which we have not realised yet, failing ourselves to employ our natural will. One may venture to conjecture that our temptations originate in Satan (and God for educational purposes), but Satan is not subject to temptations by God because he remembers his union with Him and does not feel any loss in being apart from Him. Therefore, the educational purpose of temptations granted us by God would have no effect on Satan. We can only conclude that the purpose of temptations originating from Satan is adherence to gnomic will. This, moreover, demonstrates the extent of our free will as a present from our Creator, since God will not force even Satan to return to Him, who has seen and remembers His glory. In the next section we shall examine the origination of <i >logismoi</i> and other temptations from God Himself. <br /> <br /> <br /><b>V. T</b><b >EMPTATIONS</b><b > I</b><b>NFLICTED</b><b > D</b><b>IRECTLY</b><b > </b><b>BY</b><b > G</b><b>OD</b><b > </b><b>AND</b><b > </b><b>THEIR</b><b > U</b><b>LTIMATE</b><b > P</b><b>URPOSE</b> <br /><u> </u> <br />God as Goodness naturally wills that the whole of humanity be saved. Nonetheless, the Creator s <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Providence</st1:place></st1:City> is responsible in that respect only with regard to those things that do not depend on us; to those that do, we are responsible through the exercise of our free will.<a href="#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" title="">[43]</a> God s providential scheme is therefore focused around our salvation and this is his particular justice. Since this informs His nature it is beyond our comprehension, since we cannot know his nature, as the creature cannot know its Creator. For the church fathers and ascetics all that happens to us and which is beyond our control belongs to the realm of God s justice. At times it appears as a disparaging calamity, as in the case of death and sickness, while in others it is revealed in the powerlessness of the individual in the face of adversities, vanity and lack of self-control. To the one of little faith, all these instances demonstrate either the lack of God, or the existence of a cruel God, but to the one who believes strongly in God s providence and Goodness, he accepts it as part of God s justice that is intended to train us in ascending to Him. St. John Damascus thus explains that: <blockquote> <br /> <br />Some of the things that are due to providence are by approval, whereas others are by permission. All those that are undeniably good are by approval, whereas all those that are by permission [there are many kinds]. Thus, He often permits even the just man to meet with misfortunes so that the virtue hidden in him may be made known to others. At other times, He permits something iniquitous to be done so that through this apparently iniquitous action some great and excellent thing may be brought about, as was the salvation of men by the Cross. In still another way, He permits the devout man to suffer evil either so that he may not depart from his right conscience or so that he may not fall into presumption from the strength and grace that have been given him, as in the case of Paul.<a href="#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44" title="">[44]</a> </blockquote> <br /> <br />Thus, where God inflicts certain conditions upon us, or permits Satan to infiltrate our mind with <i>logismoi</i>,<a href="#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45" title="">[45]</a> His purpose is soteriological. A death in the family, a sudden sickness, etc, involve a radical reappraisal of one s life and stance towards the will of God and it is subsequently a question of which <i>logismos</i> the inflicted person will retain; the good one, which has faith in God s justice and gives thanks to Him despite the misfortune and the pain it is causing, or the bad one, which blinded by pain does not believe in the existence of God. God allows for all these misfortunes so that we may come to a humble knowledge of ourselves and of our weaknesses.<a href="#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46" title="">[46]</a> Rational thinking suggests that as long as evil persists during our lifetime, temptations emanating from that source will not cease and neither will those derived from God himself. We are therefore destined to live in a perpetual state of temptations while in the flesh. Equally, any attempt to obliterate temptations altogether is futile, since even if we could overpower Satan who is a creature like us, we cannot overpower that which pertains to the substance of God (i.e. the providential origin of temptations). Temptation is therefore ultimately providential and not the result of evil. It is to be welcomed, but fought. This oxymoron is obvious primarily in the Lord s Prayer, particularly the part where we ask that we not be led into temptation, while at the same time asking that God s will be done. If God s will within His scheme of providential justice involves our affliction with temptations, we would be negating our demand of His will if were to demand that we not be afflicted with temptations. It must be, therefore, that this latter part of the Prayer has a meaning which is consonant with God s will. If our metaphysical understanding of God is through the manifestation of His effects, the Orthodox ascetic will find it utterly natural to accept all misfortunes and calamities as gifts from God. He will thank God for these and will pray that he not be permitted to indulge in sorrowful thinking or sink into bad <i>logismoi</i> as a result. The ascetic will have faith and pray that he harvest the maximum crop out of every sorrow in life so that he will be showered with an abundance of grace in this and the afterlife. Thus, there is no oxymoron in the Lord s Prayer, simply our inability to conceive and understand God s justice and love. <br /> <br />The ascetic fathers, therefore, confirm that God does not obliterate all temptations, but leaves some to fight us until death, so that we may not forget the war and allow passions to take us over and in order to always seek God, avoid love for self, hate our passions deep within our hearts, be tested until the end and to learn by such test the value of virtue and never let it go and to fear not death when it comes.<a href="#_ftn47" name="_ftnref47" title="">[47]</a> For the ascetic who understands this process, his exercise encompasses besides defence to temptations also an immeasurable amount of patience and forbearing. We must assume that since Christ suffered from temptations until His very end, God does not remove them by grace even vis-à-vis the most uplifted spiritual beings because of the danger of vainglory. The ascetic fathers teach that in those exceptional cases where a monk has managed to erect an impenetrable wall against the temptations of Satan, that person must either strive to discover within himself and uproot the passions that would have been inflamed by intruding temptations, and/or retain a trace of temptations, in order to keep awake the soul s struggle and vigilance.<a href="#_ftn48" name="_ftnref48" title="">[48]</a> St. Nicodemus instructs younger monks as follows: One must contemplate that temptations themselves are necessary instruments in order to acquire the virtues. Thus, when one requests the virtues from God, one essentially requests these instruments and temptations too. Otherwise, our prayer is in vain and is done merely to annoy God. What is more, God does not grant the virtue of patience without the sorrows that are the result and instrument of patience. Neither does He grant humility without frown and contempt. For this reason, we must love, invite and thank God for these temptations.<a href="#_ftn49" name="_ftnref49" title="">[49]</a> <br /> <br />God is, however, especially discerning in the way which He provides temptations to human beings. St. Nicodemus explains to his audience what they should have already observed; that serious temptations and afflictions only occur to those that more than others want to give themselves to the service of God and turn away from things that harm them. Such temptations do not arise immediately in their struggle, but only after having served God for some time and cleansed their hearts somewhat. St. Nicodemus explains that we never see sinners and those who have given their life to the world suffering from such afflictions, or even complain of being tempted.<a href="#_ftn50" name="_ftnref50" title="">[50]</a> The experienced ascetic and the pious man is discerning of the existence of temptations, temptations themselves, the inflammable nature of passions and the impulse to sin and they also have faith in God s justice. While it would be true to say that ascetics have an acute awareness of temptation because they have full knowledge of and live by the yardstick of piety and are thus able to perceive every bad <i>logismos</i> and affliction, ordinary people who live by the flesh alone are imperceptible to the origin, existence and effects of <i>logismoi</i> and take every affliction for granted without further examination. This does not mean, contrary to what St. Nicodemus suggests, that non-ascetics are less fought by <i>logismoi</i> and misfortunes than ascetics, since we have already explained that the purpose of God is to save everyone. Rather, on the one hand ascetics are more discerning of their <i >logismoi</i> and on the other God s temptations correspond to the measure of each person s weakness and are meant to build up through exercise. This is a slow process, but the speed of progress belongs to each one of us and is a matter of free will. <br /> <br />It is, therefore, out of love that God gives us temptations, so that we can remove ourselves from a false viewing of our existence. As an example, or a type, he brought the Apostle Peter in such a position as to renounce Christ thrice and thus realise his natural condition and sickness and repent through humility. Again, to Paul he gave vision of all there is in heaven, but afflicted him with a physical condition, so that by humbling himself he should only boast about his sickness.<a href="#_ftn51" name="_ftnref51" title="">[51]</a> The diversity in temptation is exemplified by the diversity in human life and character and thus God s gifts are individual. It is the way that we ultimately receive them and deal with them that is crucial for our spiritual advent. <br /><b> </b> <br /><b> </b> <br /><b>VI. R</b><b >EMEDIES</b><b > A</b><b>GAINST</b><b > T</b><b>EMPTATIONS</b> <br /> <br />The treatises examined in this article, it should be remembered, are addressed to those engaged in the monastic life. While the nature of this struggle against the demons is one and objective, the remedies offered are of two kinds: a) those that are suited for everyone, and; b) remedies administered in accordance with experience and spiritual progress, and which are not to be exercised by inexperienced brethren.<a href="#_ftn52" name="_ftnref52" title="">[52]</a> Among the universal remedies are included: a) practicing of the opposing virtue that corresponds to each temptation; b) discernment; c) prayer, psalmody and vigils. The most common exercises reserved only for the most experienced monks are the direct use of the irascible faculty to attack the demons and a direct confrontation against them. <br /> <br />The early desert fathers analyse each form of temptation on its own specific merits. The demon of fornication is to be fought through regimented fasting and other practices that prevent the body from succumbing to sensual appetites, such as all night vigils, labour and other bodily toils.<a href="#_ftn53" name="_ftnref53" title="">[53]</a> At the same time, the monk should pray ceaselessly and engage in psalmodies. The latter are intended to prevent the <i>logismos</i>/temptation from entering the intellect, and the monk, at least in his/her early stages, must avoid any contact with the opposite sex and fight through prayer the intrusion of lustful thoughts.<a href="#_ftn54" name="_ftnref54" title="">[54]</a> Evagrius suggests a complementary exercise for fighting the demon of fornication. He argues that the demon of vainglory and that of fornication are naturally opposed, because the former promises honours and the latter is the forerunner of dishonour. In this manner, they are unable to attack the soul simultaneously and thus [experienced monks may] if one of these demons approaches, one may employ the thoughts of the opposing demon.<a href="#_ftn55" name="_ftnref55" title="">[55]</a> The demon of avarice is to be curbed through renunciation of all worldly possessions. The fathers teach, however, that when monks practice such renunciation, the demon of avarice suggests to them in more subtle ways and under the guise of charity that if they were to be entrusted with the administration of property or the accumulation of wealth they would be able to provide for the poor. The monk who succumbs to such <i>logismoi</i> is not only overcome by the demon of avarice, but also by the demons of vainglory and pride who at that stage have convinced their poor victim of his/her glorious hospitality, charity and goodness.<a href="#_ftn56" name="_ftnref56" title="">[56]</a> The demons of vainglory and pride usually attack the monk during such time as he/she has achieved some spiritual progress. Evagrius teaches that alone among all thoughts, vainglory encompasses an abundance of matter, filling the mind of the anchorite with numerous words and objects.<a href="#_ftn57" name="_ftnref57" title="">[57]</a> This demon may suggest to the monk that he now requires solitude in order to perfect himself and thus urges him to abandon the monastery and the guidance of his/her spiritual father. The advice in this case is to remain in one s cell and not only to remain in the monastery, but also to avoid contact with the outside world for fear that the demon of fornication may find him unprotected. Each author gives a particular emphasis on a virtue that he considers central to ascetic spiritual efforts. For St. John Climacus, the destruction of vainglory and pride through humility is key to opposing all other demons. Such humility is particularly achieved through strict and unwavering obedience to one s spiritual father,<a href="#_ftn58" name="_ftnref58" title="">[58]</a> by remembrance of death,<a href="#_ftn59" name="_ftnref59" title="">[59]</a> mourning<a href="#_ftn60" name="_ftnref60" title="">[60]</a> and by meekness.<a href="#_ftn61" name="_ftnref61" title="">[61]</a> <br /> <br />The demon of anger finds fertile ground to attack the monk when he/she is fighting for food, wealth or esteem.<a href="#_ftn62" name="_ftnref62" title="">[62]</a> If one, therefore, masters the three principal temptations, then the demon of anger will be defeated as well. Equally, the demons of dejection and despondency attack the ascetic either during particular parts of the day, or as constant <i >logismoi</i>. Unlike other demons, that of despondency does not involve the element of pleasure in his mental representation sent to the monk. Both the temptations of despondency and that of dejection urge the monk to leave his cell and even the monastery on a permanent basis because he cannot find any form of spiritual rest or solace as a result of the temptation. The remedy for this temptation is to close one s thoughts to such suggestions and remain in one s cell until such time as the demon is defeated.<a href="#_ftn63" name="_ftnref63" title="">[63]</a> <br /> <br />Ascetic discernment is of two types: a) the first is an exercise that is intended for the struggling ascetic in order to differentiate between those thoughts and visions which come from God and those that come from the demons, whereas; b) the second type is the state attained by those who are pure in heart, body and speech and through which they possess a solid understanding of the will of God at all times, places and in all things.<a href="#_ftn64" name="_ftnref64" title="">[64]</a> As far as the first type of discernment is concerned, Evagrius distinguishes between three types of thoughts, i.e. angelic, human and demonic.<a href="#_ftn65" name="_ftnref65" title="">[65]</a> We have discussed the latter, but the monk must constantly be alert in order to distinguish the origin of each thought. Evagrian discernment encompasses an intellectual exercise. He teaches that when a <i>logismos</i> is afflicting a monk, he/she must intellectually distinguish  the thought [itself], what it is, how many elements it consists of, and among these what sort of thing it is that most afflicts the mind . A thorough application of this exercise helps to dissipate the thought and make the demon flee.<a href="#_ftn66" name="_ftnref66" title="">[66]</a> Evagrius also proposes an additional mental exercise that is only reserved for the more experienced and purified ascetics. This exercise involves contemplating the limited power of demons and their total inability in perverting the will of God when that is expressed.<a href="#_ftn67" name="_ftnref67" title="">[67]</a> This is tantamount to rationalising one s fears, as is for example the rationalisation of the fear of darkness, but in the case of the demons this is intellectually possible only if one actually perceives the activity of the demons. St. John Cassian suggests that true discrimination comes only as a result of humility and this in turn is achieved by confession not only of what a monk does but also of what he/she thinks and by never trusting one s own thoughts and always being immersed in obedience.<a href="#_ftn68" name="_ftnref68" title="">[68]</a> <br /> <br />When an inexperienced monk is attacked by a particular demon, he/she is not always well placed to defend with mental exercises. The demons find as easy prey a coarse, overfed and over-indulging body and a defenceless from external thoughts mind. The ascetic must therefore avoid exposing his body to over-indulgence and his mind to any sort of appeasement and relaxation. This involves a very strict and strenuous regime of fasting  the early desert ascetics ate and drank water once a day  all night vigils and ceaseless prayer. Sleep is deemed not only to invite the demons to tamper with the concupiscible and irascible faculties of the soul,<a href="#_ftn69" name="_ftnref69" title="">[69]</a> but is also an over-indulgence which the monk has to combat in order to avoid being attacked by those temptations that are grounded in the body. In their early stages, monks will find it particularly difficult and exhausting to fast in such a way, to stay awake for the better part of the day and concentrate on their prayer, but these difficulties are as much attributed to habit as well as to the demons themselves. This constant alertness is best exemplified in the words of St. John Climacus, who argues that when temptation comes the best weapons are: <blockquote> <br /> <br /> sackcloth and ashes, all-night vigils, standing up, hunger, the merest touch of water when we are thirsty, time passed among the burial places of the dead, and most important of all, humility of heart; and if possible a spiritual director or a helpful brother, old in wisdom rather than years, should also support us .<a href="#_ftn70" name="_ftnref70" title="">[70]</a> </blockquote> <br /> <br />Recalling the words of <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">St. Paul</st1:place></st1:City> (Eph. 5:19), Evagrius tells us that psalms, hymns and spiritual songs call the mind to the constant remembrance of virtue, cooling our boiling irascibility and extinguishing our desires.<a href="#_ftn71" name="_ftnref71" title="">[71]</a> Prayer, similarly, has a twofold purpose for Evagrius. On the one hand, it invigorates and purifies the mind for the struggle ahead  since it is naturally constituted for prayer even without this body , while on the other hand it is useful for fighting the demons on behalf of all the powers of the soul.<a href="#_ftn72" name="_ftnref72" title="">[72]</a> The twentieth century Russian Athonite, St. Silouan, was in his early monastic years troubled by demons during his prayer. In fact, he himself recalls how his cell was filled with demons that made every effort to prevent him from praying with a pure mind. The Lord communicated to the staretz s (Russian monastic elder) soul that the proud always suffer from devils to which St. Silouan asked the Lord what he should do to make his soul humble. The Lord responded as follows:  Keep thy mind in hell, and despair not .<a href="#_ftn73" name="_ftnref73" title="">[73]</a> <br /> <br />Finally, let us discuss the remedies suitable only for the experienced ascetics. The first of these is the employment of anger against demonic thoughts. The irascible part of the soul is naturally inclined against the demons and it is only unnaturally that it is directed otherwise.<a href="#_ftn74" name="_ftnref74" title="">[74]</a> Impassibility and perfection may be deemed attained when perfect hatred against the demons is coupled with absence of anger against other human beings. Such natural hatred, however, is reserved for the experience ascetics, particularly those that have overcome human anger. Evagrius claims that when the soul has forgotten its natural relationship with the irascible faculty, God abandons the monk by permitting him to suffer terror at the hands of the demons for some time, until the soul returns to its original hatred.<a href="#_ftn75" name="_ftnref75" title="">[75]</a> The second remedy for the experienced ascetics that have overcome vainglory involves a direct confrontation with the demons, either by citing passages from the Bible  as did Jesus himself when tempted  or through speaking the true word of God and thus proving to Satan that he is wrong. Such methods are strongly discouraged in the case of persons that have yet to achieve some degree of impassibility, urging them instead to fight <i>logismoi</i> through contempt, silence and turning one s eyes from them.<a href="#_ftn76" name="_ftnref76" title="">[76]</a> <br /> <br /><b> </b> <br /><b>VII. CONCLUSION</b> <br /> <br />The Eastern Orthodox Church and its monastic community have developed a long and consistent theology on temptations afflicting ascetic life. Temptations are viewed as mental representations, otherwise known as <i >logismoi</i>, which are conveyed by the demons in order to cause the stirring of the passions in human beings. According to the Evagrian scheme regarding the classification of demonic thoughts  and which has been accepted down the centuries with very slight modifications, if any  three principal demons/temptations exist: gluttony, avarice and vainglory. These give rise to the other five, namely, lust, despondency, pride, dejection and anger. Rejection of the principal three necessarily cuts off access to the latter five. The purpose of such temptations is their intrusion in the human soul and inflaming of its irascible and concupiscible faculties, thereby giving rise to an impulse and perpetration of the corresponding vice. This constitutes an unnatural exercise of the two faculties, whose existence in the soul is reserved for love and procreation (concupiscible) and hatred of the demons (irascible). <br /> <br />The fact that the demons are responsible for this invisible warfare does not mean that they are capable of challenging God for spiritual dominion. On the contrary, they too are creatures of God and as such were made in his image, which is Good. Therefore, demons and evil in general are a perversion of goodness, not a self-subsistent reality. This means that the demons can afflict us but they do not know the inner depths of our souls. The Lord allows them to tempt us so that through such a struggle we can come to realise our weaknesses and infirmities. This is consistent with Christian doctrine that no one can be saved contrary to his/her own will. The affliction of <i>logismoi</i> differ from person to person and Orthodox monks are adamant that the demons greatest achievement is to convince people that they do not in fact exist. Secular people, preoccupied with a myriad or worldly affairs, do not ponder on the origin and content of their thoughts, whereas monks, having set aside all worldly affairs, are constantly conscious of this warfare in their souls. <br /> <br />Monastic tradition since the days of the early desert fathers of the fourth century has developed antidotes to the war against spiritual life. For one thing, they teach us to practice the opposing virtues that corresponding to each vice. In its extreme form, this is very difficult for those leading a secular life, but not for the monk whose ascetic environment and vow of poverty is ideally suited for practicing the opposing virtues of gluttony, vainglory and avarice. Nonetheless, no monk has ever been free from these three demons and the example of the demon of avarice subtly intruding the soul of even the most committed brethren by suggesting that if he were to administer property or own some money he/she could do many charitable works, is instructive. The boundaries between avarice and vainglory, gluttony and fornication are so close that the monks are instructed to confess all thoughts to their spiritual fathers and strictly abide with their advice, as well as practice discernment with regard to their thoughts. Those individuals that overindulge in bodily pleasures and have a slack mind (these two are connected in any event) fall easy prey to the demons. Therefore, it is important that the body be hardened and the mind not be allowed to wander. The former is achieved through fasting, all night vigils, manual labour, austerity, while the latter by ceaseless prayer and psalmody. An exercise typically reserved for the most experienced brethren, involves employment of the irascible faculty of the soul to stir up hatred against the demons. <br /> <br /> <br /> </div> <div> <b>Notes:</b> <hr align=left size=1 width="33%"> <div id=ftn1> <br /><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""></a>* LLB (<st1:City w:st="on">Athens</st1:City>), LLM (Liverpool), Ph.D (<st1:place w:st="on">Liverpool</st1:place>), Dip. Theology (<st1:City w:st="on">Cambridge</st1:City>); Professor of International Law and Head of Law, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:PlaceName w:st="on">Brunel</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st="on">University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>. <br /><br />[1] St. Nicodemus Agiorite, <i>Invisible War</i> [<I>Aoratos Polemos</I>], p. 53. This treatise was composed in the latter half of the 18<sup>th</sup> century. </div> <div id=ftn2> <br /><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title="">[2]</a> <st1:State w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Id.</st1:place></st1:State> </div> <div id=ftn3> <br /><a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title="">[3]</a> Id, p. 54. </div> <div id=ftn4> <br /><a href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title="">[4]</a> Evagrius, <i>On Thoughts</i> 1, translated by R. E. Sinkewitz, Evagrius of Pontus (OUP, 2003); see also, St. John Climacus, <i>The Ladder of Divine Ascent</i>, translated by C. Liubheid and N. Russell (SPCK, 1982), who follows the Evagrian scheme of evil thoughts and vices, at pp. 235-55; similarly, St. John Cassian, <i>On the Eight Vices</i>, in the Philokalia, translated by G. E. H. Palmer, P. Sherrard and K. Ware (Faber and Faber, 1979-1995), pp. 73-93. </div> <div id=ftn5> <br /><a href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title="">[5]</a> Evagrius, <i>On Thoughts</i> 1, id. </div> <div id=ftn6> <br /><a href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" title="">[6]</a> St. Gregory of Nyssa, <i >The Lord s Prayer</i>, Introduction, pp. 14-15. </div> <div id=ftn7> <br /><a href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" title="">[7]</a> Id, pp. 82-83. </div> <div id=ftn8> <br /><a href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" title="">[8]</a> <st1:State w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Id.</st1:place></st1:State> </div> <div id=ftn9> <br /><a href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" title="">[9]</a> St. Macarius, in M. Plested, <i >The Macarian Legacy: The Place of Macarius-Symeon in the Eastern Christian Tradition</i> (OUP 2004), p. 79. </div> <div id=ftn10> <br /><a href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" title="">[10]</a> St. Nicodemus, supra note 1, pp. 23, 133. </div> <div id=ftn11> <br /><a href="#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" title="">[11]</a> See Maximus Confessor, <i>Opuscule 3</i>. </div> <div id=ftn12> <br /><a href="#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" title="">[12]</a> St. Athanasius, <i>The Life of Saint Anthony</i>, pp. 26-29; see also, <i >Gerontikon: Compilation of the Wisdom of the Fathers</i> [<I>Gerontikon: Stalagmaties apo t&ecirc;n Peterik&ecirc; Sophia</I>], pp. 389-91. This treatise, also known as <I>Euergetinos</I>, is compiled with anecdotal stories and sayings of the desert fathers of the first six centuries. </div> <div id=ftn13> <br /><a href="#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" title="">[13]</a> Evagrius, <i>On Thoughts</i> 18, supra note 4. </div> <div id=ftn14> <br /><a href="#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" title="">[14]</a> St. Athanasius, supra note 12, pp. 22-23. </div> <div id=ftn15> <br /><a href="#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" title="">[15]</a> <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">St. John</st1:place></st1:City> Chrysostom, <i>Baptismal Instructions</i>, pp. 182-84. </div> <div id=ftn16> <br /><a href="#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" title="">[16]</a> Gen. 3:1; see also St. John Damascus, <i >Orthodox Faith: Book Two</i>, pp. 228-29. </div> <div id=ftn17> <br /><a href="#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" title="">[17]</a> Eph. 6:12-14. </div> <div id=ftn18> <br /><a href="#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" title="">[18]</a> St. Nicodemus, supra note 1, p. 120. </div> <div id=ftn19> <br /><a href="#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" title="">[19]</a> St. Nicodemus, id, p. 135. </div> <div id=ftn20> <br /><a href="#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" title="">[20]</a> St. John Damascus, supra note 16, pp. 261, 263. </div> <div id=ftn21> <br /><a href="#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" title="">[21]</a> See St. Macarius of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Egypt</st1:place></st1:country-region>, in Plested, supra note 9, pp. 36-38. Macarius calls the advent of temptation an education for the soul. </div> <div id=ftn22> <br /><a href="#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" title="">[22]</a> St. Nicodemus, supra note 1, p. 23; St. Gregory of Nyssa, <i>On Virginity</i>, pp. 33-34; <i>Gerontikon</i>, supra note 12, p. 387. </div> <div id=ftn23> <br /><a href="#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" title="">[23]</a> <st1:City w:st="on">St. John</st1:City> <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Damascus</st1:place></st1:City>, <i >Orthodox Faith: Book Two</i>, pp. 246-47. </div> <div id=ftn24> <br /><a href="#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" title="">[24]</a> Id, pp. 247-51. </div> <div id=ftn25> <br /><a href="#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" title="">[25]</a> St. Gregory Nyssa, <i>On Virginity</i>, p. 25. </div> <div id=ftn26> <br /><a href="#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" title="">[26]</a> Evagrius, <i>On Thoughts</i> 17; St. John Climacus, supra note 4, at p. 251. </div> <div id=ftn27> <br /><a href="#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" title="">[27]</a> Evagrius demonstrates the arousal of passions absent temptations by reference to demonic arousal of passions during sleep, wherein the perceptive senses are shut off to <i>logismoi</i>. Hence, passions exist within us in dormant form and can be aroused by memory. <i>On Thoughts</i> 4, 27-29, id. </div> <div id=ftn28> <br /><a href="#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" title="">[28]</a> Gerontas Paisios Aghiorite, <i >Lectures C: Spiritual Struggle</i> [Gerontas Paisios, Logioi G: Pneumakitos Ag&ocirc;nas] (2004), pp. 20-32. </div> <div id=ftn29> <br /><a href="#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" title="">[29]</a> Pseudo- Dennys, <i>Divine Names</i> 4:11. </div> <div id=ftn30> <br /><a href="#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" title="">[30]</a> Id, chp. 4:19-20. </div> <div id=ftn31> <br /><a href="#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" title="">[31]</a> 2 Cor. 11:14. </div> <div id=ftn32> <br /><a href="#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" title="">[32]</a> St. Nicodemus, supra note 1, pp. 22-23. </div> <div id=ftn33> <br /><a href="#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" title="">[33]</a> Deut. 15:9. </div> <div id=ftn34> <br /><a href="#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" title="">[34]</a> St. Basil, <i>Ascetical Works</i>, vol. I, pp. 432. </div> <div id=ftn35> <br /><a href="#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" title="">[35]</a> Eccl. 9:20. </div> <div id=ftn36> <br /><a href="#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" title="">[36]</a> Prov. 6:5. </div> <div id=ftn37> <br /><a href="#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" title="">[37]</a> 2 Tim. 2:26; St. Basil, <i >Ascetical Works</i>, vol. I, p. 434. </div> <div id=ftn38> <br /><a href="#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" title="">[38]</a> St. N